• Medical History– Document all abdominal pathology, especially those increasing risk: atherosclerosis, immune suppression, arrhythmia, diabetes, CHF, renal failure, smoking, and cancer.
• Surgical History– Ask about prior surgeries to inform risk of adhesions or internal or external hernias, and to identify organs no longer present.
• Social History– Consider substance use, living arrangement, and baseline functional status.
• Medications– Ensure accurate medication reconciliation, particularly anti-coagulants, immunosuppressants, opiates, NSAIDS, and antihypertensives.  Inspect medication bottles if available as medications may not be taken as prescribed.  Consider drug-disease interactions (e.g., analgesic use masking pain or diuretics worsening hypovolemia).< >- Review available nursing facility, ED, and hospital records with attention to procedures, recent visits/admissions, and test results.
• Records– Review available nursing facility, ED, and hospital records with attention to procedures, recent visits/admissions, and test results.

• Ask older adults with cognitive impairment about their symptoms.

• Gather history from caregivers, referring providers, family members, and nursing facility staff. Document baseline and change in cognitive, ambulatory, and functional status.
• Observe older adults with cognitive impairment for nonverbal signs of distress (e.g., agitation, facial grimacing, discomfort with movement, holding or rubbing their abdomen, refusal to eat or drink, closed eyes, increased respiratory rate, inconsolability).
• Screen for delirium by talking with caregivers and using the Brief Confusion Assessment Method (http://www.icudelirium.org/docs/bCAM_Flowsheet.pdf)

• Older adults do not evidence vital signs abnormalities as reliably as younger patients. They are less likely to develop a high temperature. Tachycardia may be masked due to medications. In older adults with a history of hypertension, a “normal” or “low normal” blood pressure may signal serious pathology and “relative shock”.
• Pain may manifest differently. Older adults are less likely to complain of pain or show peritoneal signs of guarding, rigidity, and rebound.
• Surgical scars inform the risk of adhesions, hernias, and organs no longer present.
• Perform a rectal exam to check for impaction and blood.
• Examine the suprapubic area and consider a bladder scan to assess for urinary retention.
• Laboratory values are notoriously unreliable in indicating the etiology, likelihood, or severity of abdominal pathology in older adults. (e.g., White blood cells may not be elevated).
• Liver function tests may be misleading. They are often normal in older adults with cholecystitis and their elevation does not necessarily indicate acute hepatobiliary disease.
• Abnormal hemoglobin levels may be acute or chronic. Review prior values.
• Asymptomatic bacteriuria is very common in older adults. The incidence is nearly 100% in older adults with chronic indwelling foley catheters.
• Do not ascribe a cognitively intact, community-dwelling older adult’s abdominal pain to “UTI” without a combination of genitourinary symptoms and a suggestive urinalysis.
• Lactic acid may be an important marker of tissue hypoperfusion in older adults in whom you have a high suspicion for a surgical or rapidly progressive intra-abdominal process.

• Gallbladder and biliary tract disease is the most common surgical cause of abdominal pain in older adults.It is more often complicated by acalculous cholecystitis, ascending cholangitis, gallbladder perforation, emphysematous cholecystitis, and gallstone ileus.
• Bowel obstruction is the second most common surgical cause of abdominal pain in older adults.Small bowel obstruction, while usually secondary to adhesions or hernias as in younger patients, may be due to gallstone ileus or malignancy in older adults.Large bowel obstruction is usually caused by malignancy, diverticular disease, or sigmoid volvulus.
• The risk of abscess or perforation complicating diverticulitis or appendicitis increases with age.
• Pancreatitis is twice as common after age 65 years, and is more often due to gallstones than alcohol in older adults.
• The risk of abdominal aortic aneurysm rupture increases with age. The classic presentation of hypotension, abdominal pain, and palpable abdominal mass is often absent.
• Peptic ulcer disease and perforation is more subtle and may not present with pain.
• Intestinal ischemia presents on a spectrum from intermittent abdominal pain to rapidly progressive bowel necrosis and peritonitis.
• Consider ischemia in all older adults with abdominal pain, especially among patients with thromboembolic risk factor or among patients with low flow states. Intestinal ischemia often presents with bowel emptying (vomiting and diarrhea). If misdiagnosed as “gastroenteritis” or another self-limited illness, mortality is very high, approaching 90% in patients with bowel necrosis.

• Consider a cardiac etiology for older adults with upper abdominal pain, as abdominal pain is a common presentation for older adults with acute coronary syndrome.
• Pneumonia and pneumothorax may present as abdominal pain in older adults.
• Diabetic ketoacidosis and hypercalcemia present with abdominal pain.Obtain a metabolic panel and consider these diagnoses in older adults with diabetes, malignancy, or parathyroid disease.
• Consider retroperitoneal and rectus hematoma in older adults with abdominal, groin, back, or flank pain who are on anti-coagulation or who have had a recent cardiac catheterization.
• Genitourinary causes of abdominal pain in older adults include kidney stones, pyelonephritis, cystitis, renal infarction, and acute urinary retention.
• In the setting of fall or trauma, palpate and inspect for bruising of the thorax and abdomen, paying particular attention to the left and right upper quadrants due to possible splenic / hepatic injury.
• Inspect the skin for a rash consistent with shingles.

• Older adults with serious underlying abdominal pathology often present with nonspecific complaints (e.g., generalized weakness, mental status change, functional decline). Place abdominal pathology high on the differential diagnosis of these complaints and consider abdominal imaging in acutely ill or decompensating older adults.
• Intra-abdominal disease may present with pain referred outside the abdomen (e.g., hepatobiliary disease referred to the chest, back or shoulder; pancreatitis and peptic ulcer disease presenting as back or flank pain.)

• Plain Films- Be cautious with ordering and interpreting X-rays to evaluate abdominal pain in older adults. They lack the sensitivity and specificity requisite this high risk presentation.
• Ultrasound- Ultrasound is useful as an initial test for patients with suspected biliary tract disease. Bedside ultrasound can rapidly evaluate the aorta and should be employed liberally in older adults with abdominal pain.
• CT is the most useful imaging test for evaluating older adults with abdominal pain.
• A non-contrast CT decreases misdiagnosis and may be done quickly, limiting delay in making time-sensitive diagnoses.
• Older adults are at increased risk of contrast nephropathy due to age, co-existing medical conditions (diabetes, renal insufficiency, CHF), medications (diuretics, glucophage), and volume depletion.
• Oral contrast is important for the diagnosis of internal hernias in patients who have had gastric bypass or multiple abdominal surgeries.
• Intravenous contrast is important in evaluating vascular disease such as intestinal ischemia and aortic pathology.

• Older adults are frequently misdiagnosed with constipation, gastroenteritis, or UTI. Initial misdiagnosis significantly increases morbidity and mortality.
• Avoid the “Anchoring Bias”.Older adults may minimize the likelihood of serious disease, ascribing their symptoms to constipation, food borne illness, “a bug”, or heartburn. Do not attach to the patient’s self-diagnosis while conducting a thorough “worst things first” evaluation.
• Two thirds of the mortality associated with acute gastroenteritis in the United States is in patients over 70 years.
• Fecal impaction is not a benign presentation, as it may cause bowel perforation or ischemia.

• Reevaluate frequently and consider repeating laboratory studies.
• Consider admission or observation for patients with undifferentiated abdominal pain.
• Discuss the case with a surgical consultant.
• Many older adults with abdominal pain can be safely discharged. Collaborate with the patient, caregivers, PCP, and specialists to create a workable discharge plan. Insure understanding of discharge instructions. Always instruct the patient to return to the ED if symptoms worsen, persist, or recur.

Impaired homeostasis

Post-mitotic tissue and age related degeneration